At first glance, Charles Darwin seems an unlikely revolutionary. Growing up a shy and unassuming member of a wealthy British family, he appeared, at least to his father, to be idle and directionless. But even as a child, Darwin expressed an interest in nature. Later, while studying botany at Cambridge University, he was offered a chance to work as an unpaid naturalist on the HMS Beagle, a naval vessel embarking on an exploratory voyage around the world. In the course of nearly five years at sea – during which time the Beagle surveyed the coast of South America and stopped in such places as Australia and, most famously, the Galapagos Islands – Darwin took advantage of countless opportunities to observe plant and animal life and to collect both living and fossilized specimens for later study.
After the Beagle returned to England in October 1836, Darwin began reflecting on his observations and experiences, and over the next two years developed the basic outline of his groundbreaking theory of evolution through natural selection. But beyond sharing his ideas with a close circle of scientist friends, Darwin told no one of his views on the origin and development of life. Indeed, he did not publish his now-famous volume, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, until 1859, more than 20 years after he had first formulated his theory.
On the Origin of Species may never have been written, let alone published, if it had not been for Alfred Russel Wallace, another British naturalist who independently proposed a strikingly similar theory in 1858. Wallace’s announcement prompted Darwin to publicly reveal that his own research had led him to the same conclusion decades earlier. This being the age of Victorian gentlemen, it was agreed that the two scientists would jointly publish their writings on the subject. Their work – comprising a collection of Darwin’s earlier notes and an essay by Wallace – was read to the Linnean Society, an association of naturalists, in London on July 1, 1858. The following year, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, a lengthy, fleshed-out treatment of his ideas on evolutionary theory. The book was an immediate bestseller and quickly set off a firestorm of controversy.
Darwin had expected no less – fear of a backlash from Britain’s religious and even scientific establishment had been the primary reason he had delayed publicizing his ideas. Yet the concept of species adaptation was not so radical at the time. Scientists had been debating whether animals evolved decades before Darwin put forth his theory. The idea of “transmutation of species” had been rejected by many prominent naturalists, among them French scientist Georges Cuvier, who believed that species had been created much as they appeared in his day. But transmutation also had early champions, including Darwin’s grandfather, the famed Birmingham physician Erasmus Darwin.
The younger Darwin’s achievement was to offer a plausible and compelling explanation for how species evolve and to use this explanation to trace the history of life’s development. All existing creatures, he argued, descended from a small number of original or progenitor species. Darwin compared the history of life to a great tree, its trunk representing these few common ancestors and an extensive system of branches and twigs symbolizing the great variety of life that has evolved from them.
This evolution, Darwin wrote, is due to two factors. The first factor, Darwin argued, is that each individual animal is marked by subtle differences that distinguish it from its parents. Darwin, who called these differences “variations,” understood their effect but not their cause; the idea of genetic mutation, and indeed the scientific study of genetics, would not arise fully until the early 20th century. The second factor, Darwin argued, is that although variations are random, some of them convey distinct advantages – superior camouflage, a heartier constitution or greater speed, for example – that better equip a creature to survive in its environment. A greater chance of survival allows for more opportunity to breed and pass on advantageous traits to a greater number of offspring. Over time, an advantage spreads throughout a species; in turn, the species is more likely to endure and reproduce. Thus, over the course of many generations, subtle changes occur and accumulate, eventually morphing into bigger changes and, possibly, even a new species.
While Darwin’s ideas initially challenged long-held scientific and religious belief systems, opposition to much of Darwin’s thinking among the scientific communities of the English-speaking world largely collapsed in the decades following the publication of On the Origin of Species. Yet evolution continued to be vigorously rejected by British and American churches because, religious leaders argued, the theory directly contradicted many of the core teachings of the Christian faith.
Darwin’s notion that existing species, including man, had developed over time due to constant and random change seemed to be in clear opposition to the idea that all creatures had been created “according to their kind” by God, as described in the first chapter of the biblical book of Genesis. Before Darwin, the prevailing scientific theory of life’s origins and development had held that species were fixed and that they never changed. This theory, known as “special creationism,” comported well with the biblical account of God creating the fish, fowl and mammals without mention of subsequent alteration.
Darwinian thinking also appeared to contradict the notion, central to Christianity and many other faiths, that man had a special, God-given place in the natural order. Instead, proponents of evolution pointed to signs in human anatomy – remnants of a tailbone, for instance – showing common ancestry with other mammals.
Finally, the idea of a benevolent God who cared for his creation was seemingly challenged by Darwin’s depiction of the natural world as a savage and cruel place – “red in tooth and claw,” as Darwin’s contemporary, Alfred Lord Tennyson, wrote just a few years before On the Origin of Species was published. Darwin’s theory challenged the idea that the natural world existed in benevolent harmony.
Darwin fully understood, and at times agonized over, the threat that his work might pose to traditional religious belief, explaining in an 1860 letter to American botanist Asa Gray that he “had no intention to write atheistically.” But, he went on, “I cannot see as plainly as others do … evidence of design and beneficence on all sides of us. There seems to be too much misery in the world.”
Regardless of his intentions, Darwin’s ideas provoked a harsh and immediate response from religious leaders in Britain. For instance, England’s highest-ranking Catholic official, Henry Cardinal Manning, denounced Darwin’s views as “a brutal philosophy – to wit, there is no God, and the ape is our Adam.” Samuel Wilberforce, the Anglican Archbishop of Oxford and one of the most highly respected religious leaders in 19th-century England, also condemned natural selection in a now-famous speech on what he deemed the theory’s scientific deficiencies at an 1860 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. At one point during the meeting, Wilberforce reportedly asked biologist Thomas Henry Huxley whether he was related to an ape on his grandmother’s or grandfather’s side. Huxley, whose vigorous defense of evolutionary theory would earn him the nickname “Darwin’s bulldog,” allegedly replied that he would rather be the ancestor of a monkey than an advanced and intelligent human being who employed his “knowledge and eloquence in misrepresenting those who are wearing out their lives in the search for truth.”
Some scholars now contend that Huxley’s rebuke of Wilberforce never occurred. Regardless, it was around this time that the British scientific establishment gained the upper hand in the debate over evolution. And while the public disagreement between ecclesiastical and scientific authorities did not end in the 1860s, religious thinkers became more wary of directly challenging evolution on scientific grounds. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, churches instead focused much of their energy on resisting the idea that man had evolved from lower animal orders and hence had no special place in creation or, for that matter, a soul. Indeed, while some churches, including the Catholic Church, eventually accepted evolution as a God-directed mechanism of biological development, none questioned the role of God as the sole creator of man.
By the time of his death, in 1882, Darwin was considered the greatest scientist of his age. Moreover, the very church his theory had challenged accorded him a full state funeral and burial in Westminster Abbey, near the grave of Sir Isaac Newton. Darwin’s idea was still provocative, but by the time of his death it had gained general acceptance in Britain, even among many in the Anglican clergy. Indeed, his interment in the abbey was seen by some contemporaries as symbolic of an uneasy truce between science and religion in Britain.
Darwin and Evolution: A Study Guide
Quiz
What was Charles Darwin's initial impression on his family, and how did his early interests contrast with this impression?
Describe Darwin's role on the HMS Beagle and the significance of his observations during the voyage.
What prompted Darwin to publish his theory of evolution, and why had he delayed its publication?
Explain the joint publication of Darwin and Wallace's ideas, and its impact on the scientific community.
How did Darwin's concept of "variations" contribute to his theory of natural selection?
Describe the two main factors Darwin identified as driving the evolutionary process.
Why did Darwin's theory provoke a strong negative reaction from many religious communities?
Explain the concept of "special creationism" and how it differed from Darwin's theory.
Briefly summarize the debate between Thomas Henry Huxley and Samuel Wilberforce regarding human evolution.
How was Darwin honored at his death, and what did this event symbolize about the acceptance of his ideas in Britain?
Quiz Answer Key
Darwin was seen as idle and directionless, but he had an early interest in nature, contrasting with his family's perception of him.
Darwin served as an unpaid naturalist on the HMS Beagle, observing plant and animal life and collecting specimens, which became crucial to his theory.
Alfred Russel Wallace's independent proposal of a similar theory spurred Darwin to publish, as he had delayed due to fear of backlash.
Darwin and Wallace jointly published their work, which helped bring Darwin's decades-earlier research to light, and initiated a larger debate on evolution.
Darwin recognized that small differences ("variations") between individuals within a species were the basis for natural selection, allowing some to survive and reproduce more effectively.
The two factors are random variations among individuals and the survival advantages that some variations provide in a specific environment.
Many religious communities reacted strongly because Darwin's theory contradicted the idea of fixed species created by God and challenged the notion of a special place for humans.
"Special creationism" is the theory that all species were created by God in their current form, differing from Darwin's theory of evolution and gradual change.
Huxley and Wilberforce engaged in a debate that epitomized the conflict between science and religion, focusing on whether humans were descended from apes or were created by God.
Darwin was honored with a state funeral and burial in Westminster Abbey, symbolizing a truce and growing acceptance of his ideas in Britain.
Essay Questions
Analyze the key scientific and social factors that contributed to the development of Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection, including pre-existing theories and the social context in which he worked.
Compare and contrast the main points of Darwin’s theory of evolution and the theory of special creationism, discussing why Darwin’s theory caused so much controversy at the time of its publication.
Explore the significance of the HMS Beagle voyage for Darwin's development of his ideas on evolution, focusing on the specific observations he made and how they shaped his thinking.
Discuss the ways in which the publication of On the Origin of Species challenged existing religious, philosophical, and scientific beliefs and explain how this challenge continues to resonate.
Consider the evolution of the reception of Darwin’s ideas from the mid-19th century to the late 19th century, noting how the scientific and religious communities came to respond to Darwin’s theory differently over time.
Glossary of Key Terms
Natural Selection: The process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce more than those less adapted.
Evolution: The process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth.
Transmutation of Species: The concept that species can change or transform over time, predating and influencing Darwin's theory.
Variations: The slight differences among individual organisms within a species, some of which are inheritable.
Special Creationism: The religious belief that all species were created in their current form by God and have not changed over time.
HMS Beagle: The British naval vessel on which Charles Darwin served as a naturalist, traveling around the world and gathering data that was crucial to the development of his theory.
On the Origin of Species: Charles Darwin's seminal work, published in 1859, outlining his theory of evolution by natural selection.
Alfred Russel Wallace: A British naturalist who independently developed a theory of evolution similar to Darwin's, prompting Darwin to publish his own findings.
Linnean Society: An association of naturalists in London where Darwin and Wallace’s ideas on evolution were first presented.
Thomas Henry Huxley: A British biologist and defender of Darwin’s ideas, known as "Darwin’s bulldog."
Frequently Asked Questions about Darwin's Theory of Evolution
What was the primary motivation behind Charles Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle, and what did he observe during that voyage that was crucial to developing his theory?
Charles Darwin's voyage on the HMS Beagle was not initially intended to develop his theory of evolution, but rather for him to serve as an unpaid naturalist on a surveying expedition. During the five-year journey, he made extensive observations of diverse plant and animal life in locations such as South America and the Galapagos Islands. These observations were critical because they exposed him to a wide variety of species with unique characteristics, leading him to contemplate how such diversity arose. The Galapagos Islands were particularly important because Darwin noted the slight differences in beak shapes of finches on different islands, each adapted to a specific diet and environment. This sparked his thinking about how species adapt and change over time.
How did Darwin come to formulate his theory of evolution through natural selection?
After returning to England, Darwin spent two years reflecting on his observations. He developed the concept of natural selection, the idea that individuals within a species are marked by subtle differences (variations) that make some more likely to survive and reproduce in a given environment. He reasoned that those individuals with advantageous traits would pass those traits to their offspring more often, leading to the gradual change of a species over many generations. This process of adaptation, driven by random variation and environmental pressures, was the core of his theory. It is important to note that he initially delayed publication, for decades, due to fear of backlash from religious and scientific communities.
What role did Alfred Russel Wallace play in the publication of Darwin's theory? Alfred Russel Wallace, another British naturalist, independently developed a strikingly similar theory of evolution through natural selection. In 1858, Wallace's work prompted Darwin to reveal his earlier research, leading to a joint publication of their work. Their work, including excerpts from Darwin’s notes and an essay by Wallace, was presented to the Linnean Society in 1858. The following year, Darwin published his comprehensive work, On the Origin of Species, which further elaborated and substantiated his theory. Therefore, the co-discovery by Wallace played a key role in moving the theory of evolution from Darwin's notebooks to publication.
What is "natural selection," and how does it drive evolution?
Natural selection is the process by which organisms with traits that better enable them to survive in a given environment tend to have more offspring, leading to the gradual change of a species over many generations. Darwin argued that each individual in a species has slight differences or "variations," and these variations can be advantageous, such as superior camouflage or greater speed. The organisms with advantageous variations are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their beneficial characteristics. Over time, these advantageous traits become more prevalent in a population, resulting in adaptation and potentially even the emergence of a new species.
How did Darwin's theory challenge the prevailing scientific and religious beliefs of his time?
Darwin’s theory challenged both scientific and religious establishments. Prior to Darwin, the dominant scientific view was that species were fixed and unchanging (special creationism). Darwin's theory proposed that species change over time and are related through common descent. This was a direct contradiction to scientific views at the time that species were fixed and unchanging. From a religious perspective, Darwin’s concept that species change gradually through natural selection seemed to directly conflict with the biblical account of a divine creation of fixed species. His work also challenged the idea of mankind having a special place in the world, pointing to evolutionary links with other mammals.
What were the main objections to Darwin's theory, particularly from religious leaders? The main objections to Darwin's theory from religious leaders centered on its contradiction of biblical accounts of creation. The theory that species, including humans, evolved over time through random changes directly opposed the belief that species were created as they are "according to their kind" by God. The idea that humans shared common ancestry with other animals challenged their special status in creation. Additionally, Darwin's depiction of the natural world as one of suffering and competition ("red in tooth and claw") challenged the concept of a benevolent God overseeing a harmonious creation.
How was the debate between proponents and opponents of evolution resolved?
While the public disagreement between ecclesiastical and scientific authorities did not end in the 1860s, the scientific community in the English-speaking world gradually accepted evolution, whereas religious leaders became more wary of challenging it on scientific grounds. Instead, they shifted their focus to resisting the idea that humans evolved from lower animal orders, insisting on the special creation of humanity by God. Over time, some churches, including the Catholic Church, have come to accept evolution as a God-directed mechanism of biological development. Darwin's ideas became more widely accepted in Britain, even amongst some of the Anglican clergy by the time of his death, as shown by his burial in Westminster Abbey. This suggests a sort of “uneasy truce” between religion and science.
How is Darwin's work viewed today? Today, Charles Darwin is considered one of the greatest scientists of all time. His theory of evolution through natural selection forms the bedrock of modern biology. While his work initially caused controversy, it is now widely accepted in the scientific community. His ideas revolutionized our understanding of the history of life and its great diversity. Despite initial tensions with some religious authorities, many faiths have found ways to reconcile evolution with their beliefs, acknowledging it as a process by which life developed according to divine will.